Cosmic Order in Indo-European Paganism
All Indo-European peoples lived according to the principle of cosmic order: from Ireland and Scandinavia in the west to Persia, India, and the borders of China in the east. In this blog, we will examine the Vedic religion, from which the oldest religious text in the world originated. From there, we will derive the fundamental principles of Indo-European religion and provide examples from other Proto-Indo-European peoples.
What is Proto-Indo-European Culture?
Around 3000 BC, the cultures of the Yamnaya horizon migrated from the Pontic-Caspian steppe to Europe. They were speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, the precursor to the languages spoken today in much of Europe. They brought with them the Indo-European cultures that developed into what we now know as the Celts, Germans, Vikings, Balto-Slavs, Greeks, Romans, and Iberians.
Migration to the East
Part of this group then migrated back east from Central Europe, towards the Ural Mountains. From 2200 BC, the Sintashta culture developed in this area. This region is regarded as the birthplace of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family, which split into the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches between 2000 and 1600 BC.
Indo-Aryans
The Indo-Aryan people spoke an early form of Sanskrit. These people migrated in waves starting around 2000 BC towards Central Asia, Pakistan, and Northwest India. They brought their religion with them, which blended with the religious practices of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley. In texts written in Vedic Sanskrit, these people referred to themselves as Aryans; therefore, we will also use this term despite the negative connotations associated with it in the 20th and 21st centuries.
The Rigveda
For centuries, the Indo-Aryans orally passed down their stories, myths, and religious dogmas to one another. Between 1500 and 1000 BC, they first wrote these down in a collection of hymns: the Rigveda. The Rigveda is one of the oldest surviving Indo-European texts and the oldest religious scripture in the world.
Due to its early date, the Rigveda provides a unique insight into an ancient Indo-European religion. By comparing the texts and fundamental principles of Vedic religion with later myths and religious expressions of other Indo-European peoples, we can reconstruct several concepts from Proto-Indo-European religion.
The Vedic Cosmos
Rta (h₂r-tós)
In Vedic religion, Rta refers to cosmic order, truth, or the regular functioning of the universe. It is a principle that determines balance in nature and moral issues and is one of the cornerstones of the Rigveda. The gods are connected with Rta but do not stand above it.
Rta assumes that all things in the universe are continuously in motion (gati), including physical objects, celestial bodies, and oceans, as well as non-physical things such as moral progress. All elements in the world work harmoniously together according to the cosmic order (samghatna); through the force of Rta, both nature and social structures exist in balance and cooperation. The course of events, both in nature and in life, is predetermined by the inevitable laws of cause and effect (niyati).
Thus, Ṛta governs both the physical world and the moral and social spheres, regulating movement, cooperation, and fate through this universal order.
Two concepts that we will revisit shortly are inextricably linked to Rta: dharma and karma. Dharma refers to the rules or principles that support cosmic order, while karma pertains to the actions of an individual that influence how that order manifests.
The word Rta and its Avestan equivalent aṣ̌a are derived from the Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hr̥tás (‘truth’), which originates from the Proto-Indo-European *h₂r-tós / *xartus (‘correct, connected, right, true,’ from the verb root *h₂er- ‘to fit, arrange, order’).
Dharma (dʰér-mos)
Beings fulfill their true nature when they follow the path set forth by the laws of Rta, the cosmic order. If they do not adhere to these laws, chaos and suffering arise.
It is therefore essential to align one’s actions with this order, which is called dharma, to ensure one’s own well-being. Dharma encompasses the rules, principles, or prescriptions that support Rta. When someone fails to abide by these cosmic laws, adharma arises, leading to a disruption of the natural balance and causing misery and adversity.
Several important dharmic concepts include reciprocity, hospitality, and the existence of classes. We will return to these later in this text.
The word dharma comes from the Proto-Indo-European verb *dʰer- (‘to support, to hold’).
Karma (kʷer-)
Rta is the cosmic order. Dharma refers to the rules or principles that support this order. In the later Vedic period, the emphasis shifted from the gods as executors of Ṛta to the individual, who was responsible for upholding Ṛta through their actions.
As a result, there was increased focus on the ethical responsibility and guilt of human beings. The concept of Karma plays a central role in this context. Karma means "action" and refers to the deeds performed by an individual, which can align with dharma (the right path) or contradict it. These actions have a cause-and-effect relationship with the happiness or suffering that an individual experiences in life.
The word karma likely originated from the Proto-Indo-European verb *kʷer- (‘to do, to make, to build’). Interestingly, this developed into the Proto-Celtic word *kʷaryos, which means kettle. The kettle was an essential element of Celtic spirituality, as seen in the Gundestrup Cauldron and the motif of the cauldron of rebirth.
Brahman (bʰerǵʰ-)
In the Rigveda, Brahman originally referred to the spiritual power of rituals, prayers, and mantras. It was the energy released through the correct execution of these sacred acts, where the word—especially in hymns and offerings—served as a source of power.
Brahman was directly related to Ṛta, the cosmic order, as performing rituals according to the correct rules (dharma) was seen as essential for maintaining Ṛta. Through the power of Brahman, via correct rituals, harmony in the cosmos was supported and affirmed, ensuring that the natural and moral order remained intact. In other words, Brahman reinforced and protected Ṛta through ritual precision.
In the later Vedic period, Brahman acquired a more philosophical meaning and was regarded as the ultimate, invisible reality that permeates the entire universe. Here, Brahman was seen as the fundamental essence of everything, the source from which all existence emerges. However, this broader, metaphysical concept of Brahman remained closely connected to Ṛta, as Ṛta was the manifestation of this deeper, universal truth.
Thus, Brahman became the underlying force behind both the visible cosmos and the laws that governed this order (Ṛta). The concept of Brahman evolved from ritual power to the universal source of all reality but remained tied to Ṛta as the manifestation of cosmic and moral order.
The word Brahman comes from the Proto-Indo-European verb *bʰerǵʰ- (‘to rise, to ascend, to elevate’) plus the suffix *-mn̥, which formed a noun meaning ‘growth, expansion, creation, development.’
Atman (h₁eh₁tmṓ)
In the earlier Vedic period, the Atman was the life breath or the inner essence of an individual. It is that which makes a person alive and is a manifestation of the universal life force. It represents an individual expression of the universal order of Rta.
In the later Vedic period, particularly in the Upanishads, Ātman evolves into a much deeper philosophical concept. Here, Ātman is not only regarded as the individual soul but is also seen as identical to Brahman, the ultimate reality. During this period, life and the cosmos are understood as an expression of the fundamental unity between Ātman and Brahman, with Ṛta still representing the cosmic order upheld by this unity.
Adhering to Ṛta through Dharma and understanding one's own Ātman as a part of Brahman is essential for spiritual enlightenment.
The word Atman is derived from the Proto-Indo-European word *h₁eh₁tmṓ (‘to blow’), akin to the Ancient Greek ἀτμός (‘steam’), the Dutch "adem" (meaning "breath"), and the Welsh "awel" (meaning "breeze").
Cosmic Order in Other Indo-European Cultures
The Vedic religion has developed several clear concepts about cosmic order. This cosmic order was also present in other Indo-European cultures. Two peoples have clearly documented their vision of cosmic order: the Persians and the Greeks.
The Persian Asha
As mentioned earlier, the Indo-Iranian branch of the Proto-Indo-European language split into an Indo-Aryan and an Iranian branch. The speakers of the Proto-Iranian language settled on the Iranian plateau, which includes present-day Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. By the end of the 2nd millennium BC and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, various Iranian peoples emerged, such as the Medes and the Persians.
The Persians also transmitted their religious dogmas orally, to such an extent that the primary source on ancient Persian religion, the Avesta, was only written down in the 6th century AD. The Avesta is a scripture of the Zoroastrian religion. Nevertheless, it preserves many elements of ancient Persian paganism.
In ancient Persian religion, the idea of a universal order also played an important role, with divine powers maintaining the natural and moral order. Asha was an expression of the right way of living and the correct execution of rituals and moral actions.
These early ideas were further developed in Zoroastrianism, where Ahura Mazda, the supreme god, became the embodiment of Asha. His struggle against Angra Mainyu (the evil spirit representing chaos and lies) became a fundamental theme of the religion, calling on the followers of Ahura Mazda to align themselves with Asha to uphold order in the cosmos and in their lives.
The Greek Logos
Early Greek ideas about order played a central role in the emergence of their philosophical and scientific worldview. The word "kosmos" itself literally means "order" or "ordered world," and it stood in contrast to chaos, which refers to disorder or the primordial state without structure.
Thales of Miletus (624-546 BC) sought to explain natural phenomena without resorting to mythological explanations. He introduced the idea that there is a fundamental principle (archê) that forms the underlying substance of everything in the universe. For him, this principle was water, which he saw as the source of all life and order in nature.
One of Thales' students, Anaximander, proposed that there was an unlimited and indefinite principle, the apeiron, which was the source of everything. He believed that the universe developed from the apeiron and that the cosmos had an ordered structure governed by natural laws that ensured the elements remained in balance.
Heraclitus (535-475 BC) introduced the concept of logos ('word') as the universal law or rational principle that governs the continual change and the unity of opposites in the universe. Logos was the link between rational language and the rational structure of the world. For him, the world was in constant motion (panta rhei), yet governed by an underlying order, the logos, which keeps everything in balance.
This theory was further developed by the Stoics, who saw logos as the divine reason that governs the world, and it was the goal of humanity to live in accordance with this reason. By acting rationally and morally, one maintained the order of the cosmos.
Logos is comparable to Ṛta in that it pertains to both physical and moral order: everything, from natural phenomena to human actions, must occur in harmony with logos. For Heraclitus, logos was responsible for the unity of opposites in the world. The world is full of conflict and change, but this movement takes place within an ordered whole governed by logos.
In Vedic thought, Ṛta has a strong religious character, whereas in Greek philosophy, logos is seen as a rational and often pantheistic principle (the divine is present everywhere in nature and forms the essence of all that exists).
The Oath-Bound Society
Words held significant meaning and high value for the Proto-Indo-Europeans.
We see this in the Rigveda: hymns and offerings to the gods were equally important in winning the favor of the deities. The words of poets created truth. During festivals, everyone tried to capture the attention of the gods at the same time, which is why poets were highly compensated. This appreciation for poets and storytellers is also reflected in ancient Irish society, where the poet (fili) even held the status of a noble outside his clan.
However, the word was not only important in a religious or mythical context. Oral agreements were the cornerstone of society. These agreements were typically sealed by swearing an oath. Therefore, it is often said that Indo-European society was oath-bound.
If you violated these agreements, it disrupted the cosmic order, and you would face punishment.
Reciprocity and Hospitality (ghós-ti-)
The hymns of the Rigveda provide a clear picture: when a person correctly invokes a god and offers correctly (think of the Brahman), they receive something back from that god. This creates a circle of giving, receiving, and giving again.
This concept of reciprocity was very important in many Indo-European cultures, not only in relation to the gods but also in relation to other people. The Latin concept Do ut des (“I give so that you may give”) is a good example of this.
The right to hospitality is also based on this reciprocity and was significant among all Indo-European peoples. The Vedic people had atithi, the Greeks had xenia, the ancient Irish wrote laws about it, and Scandinavian sagas are filled with examples of (the refusal of) hospitality.
These rules likely originated in the time when the cultures of the Yamnaya horizon migrated into Europe from the steppes around 3000 BC. This occurred in smaller groups, and often these groups passed through regions where related tribes had already settled. These relatives were obligated to receive the travelers as guests, knowing that they too would be welcomed when they migrated again.
This principle is also referred to as the ghósti principle. The Proto-Indo-European word ghós-ti- likely originally meant both “guest” and “host,” emphasizing the reciprocity of this relationship. Guests and hosts had a mutual relationship based on agreements and gifts. The giving and receiving of favors was accompanied by rituals that obligated the guest to always be hospitable to their host in the future.
This obligation could even be passed down from generation to generation. For example, in the stories of Homer, warriors Glaucus and Diomedes stopped fighting and exchanged gifts when they discovered that their grandfathers had once had a guest-host relationship.
Violations of these obligations were seen as immoral, illegal, and unholy. In Irish law, refusing hospitality was considered a crime equal to murder. The killing of a guest was likewise viewed with great horror, as was the abuse of hospitality.
Thus, reciprocity and hospitality were important rules that supported the cosmic order.
Classes and the Patron-Client Relationship
The French scholar Georges Dumézil divided society into three classes: the spiritual class (priests and kings), the warrior class, and the farmer class. His theory has had a significant influence, although it is somewhat vaguely defined and broad. Nevertheless, we can find these classes in many Indo-European societies.
People from a lower class could enter into a patron-client relationship with individuals from a higher class. The patron provided the client with protection and economic support, while the client, in return, offered loyalty, services, and sometimes political support. This relationship was based on trust and personal obligations and was essential for social stability and networks. In exchange for protection and assistance, clients could work for the patron, follow them in battle, or support their political ambitions.
A good example of this is the Roman patron-client relationship, which certainly existed before 400 BC. The clientes were a kind of serfs to the patronus. They received support in the form of money or food, as well as legal assistance, in exchange for accompanying the patron in important public affairs and providing their support.
Such arrangements are also recorded in the Old Irish laws. A person needed at least five free and five unfree clients to attain the status of lord (flaith). The flaith would provide their clients with livestock or a piece of land in exchange for rent, hospitality, and other services. Since the client did not have to give all their earnings to their lord, they had the opportunity to rise in status and eventually take on clients themselves.
In this patron-client relationship, the importance of reciprocity also emerged as a support for the cosmic order.
Further Examples of Cosmic Order
In addition to religious doctrines, philosophical treatises, and legal agreements, mythology was also infused with the concept of cosmic order and what happens when someone does not adhere to it. It takes a bit more effort to derive these concepts from mythology, but below are a few examples.
The Fates - Moirai & Norns
The Fates played a significant role in both Greek mythology (the moirai) and Scandinavian mythology (the norns).
The moirai consisted of Clotho ("the spinner"), who spun the thread of a person's life; Lachesis ("the allotter"), who measured the thread; and Atropos ("the inevitable"), who cut the thread. The idea of moira pertained to what a person is justly entitled to in life, such as fortune, success, or resources. If someone received more than what they were entitled to, it was seen as a disturbance of the natural order. Although it was possible to receive more than one's fair share, it would lead to severe punishment or negative consequences because it contradicted the balance and rules of life. This is thus a form of adharma.
The norns consisted of Urðr ("what has happened," the Old English Wyrd), Verðandi ("what is happening"), and Skuld ("what must be"). This has led some to believe they refer to past, present, and future, although that is not certain. They spin the threads of life at the root of the world tree Yggdrasil.
A verse from the Poetic Edda describes how the norns "with strength wove the web of fate." This may imply that the norns not only determine the fate of individuals but also weave events that affect the community, such as the fate of a city. This could possibly be the basis for the later neopagan Web of Wyrd.
The concept of the Fates is related to niyati, the concept of rta that dictates the course of events as preordained and fixed. Furthermore, it illustrates how the individual (the atman) relates to the whole (the Brahman).
Hamingja & Daimon
All people had to strive for the cosmic order. Both Greek and Norse cosmology recognized a ‘guardian spirit’ that accompanied individuals in pursuing ṛta: the daimon (Greek) or the fylgja / hamingja (Norse).
The ancient Greeks believed that everyone had their own daimon. The daimon was a kind of intermediary between the gods and a person, influencing one's fate, choices, and moral development. In the philosophy of Plato and Socrates, the daimon is seen as an inner voice or moral guide that helps with decision-making. The daimon is not necessarily good or evil but can exert both positive and negative influences, depending on the actions of the person.
Hamingja refers to a form of personal luck power or spiritual energy that affects prosperity and success, and which can also be transferable within families. Because the hamingja could be inherited from family members, it was also dependent on the deeds of one's ancestors.
Fylgja is a personal guardian spirit or companion that often appears in animal or female form and reflects an individual's fate; it can symbolize one's fortune or impending danger. Both concepts are closely connected to a person's well-being and fate, with hamingja being more focused on success and protection, while fylgja is seen as a manifestation of the soul or fate. In both cases, spiritual guidance and protection play an important role in a person's life.
Thus, the daimon, fylgja, and hamingja helped the individual to become a better person.
Daidalos & Ikaros
The myth of Daidalos and Ikaros was widely known in the classical world and was told by (Pseudo-)Apollodorus and Ovid, among others.
Daidalos was a brilliant craftsman from Athens. When his nephew Perdix surpassed him by inventing the saw and a compass, Daidalos became jealous and pushed him over the edge of the Acropolis. Pallas Athena transformed the boy into a partridge to save him. Due to this attempted murder, Daidalos had to leave Athens, and he settled in Crete, where King Minos ruled.
Minos defied Poseidon, the god of the sea, by sacrificing a gray bull instead of a white one. As punishment, the gods made Minos' wife mad, causing her to desire the sacrificial bull. Daidalos created a wooden substitute for the bull. From this union, the Minotaur was born, for whom Daidalos built a labyrinth.
Minos imprisoned Daidalos because he knew the secret of the labyrinth. However, the clever inventor made two sets of wings, one for himself and one for his son Ikaros, to escape. He urged the boy not to fly too low, lest the wings become wet, and not too high. Ikaros ignored his warnings and flew too high, causing the sun to melt the wax that held the feathers together, and he fell to his death.
This story illustrates how disrupting the cosmic order (ṛta) will always have consequences, and these consequences may not always be immediately apparent.
Goddess Dresses
The cosmic order represents structure and beauty, and our goddess dresses bring that same harmony to your wardrobe. In Indo-European rituals, women played a crucial role as the link between mortals and gods. For these sacred moments, our ancestors dressed their best, paying tribute to their important task. The dresses showcased in this blog are designed to highlight your own beauty, exuding strength and elegance. They are perfect for both ritual occasions and everyday use, allowing you to always stay connected to your inner goddess. Click here for the collection.