Religion played a significant role in Germanic society, as confirmed by Roman historians Tacitus and Caesar, both of whom mentioned Germanic religion. Tacitus names gods such as Wodan, Thor, and Nerthus and describes their roles, while Caesar provides less detail but also mentions some gods and religious practices. However, archaeological findings of Germanic votive figurines indicate that representations were indeed made. In this blog, we will further explore what we know about Germanic religion.
Germanic Gods
Some of the most well-known Old Germanic gods are Odin (Wodan), Thor (Donar), and Freyja (Frija). Odin was the supreme god associated with wisdom, war, and magic. He was also the god of the dead and the afterlife. Thor was the god of thunder and lightning, known for his immense strength and protective qualities. Freyja was the goddess of love, fertility, and beauty, seen as a protector of women and mothers.
In addition to these three major gods, there were numerous other gods and goddesses in the Germanic pantheon, such as Tyr (Tiwaz), the god of justice, Forseti, the god of law and peace, and Frigg, the wife of Odin and goddess of marriage and fertility.
Depictions of Gods
Tacitus mentions that the Germanic people did not create depictions of their gods but rather sought them as spiritual forces in nature. However, this is not entirely accurate, as archaeological excavations in bogs and marshes have regularly uncovered wooden Germanic votive figurines.
Tree Worship
Like other Indo-European peoples, the Germanic people revered various types of trees, possibly inspired by the mythological Yggdrasil. These sacred trees were seen as centers connecting different levels of the universe and representing the world itself.
After the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons and Saxons to Christianity in the 7th and 8th centuries, many pagan practices related to trees, such as worship and offering gifts, were prohibited. Nevertheless, reports from the 11th century still mention offerings being placed at trees in England and the worship of spirits in wooded areas in Saxony. The penitential laws of that time explicitly forbid the use of sacred areas around stones, trees, and springs.
In later folklore, offerings are still made to tree spirits, such as Askafroa in Scandinavia and Germany, and the Women of One Tree Hill in England. In the latter case, the gifts to the trees are specifically associated with a return of fertility to the land. There is also a Scandinavian folk tradition in which farmers make small offerings to a "guardian tree" seen as a protective entity for the family and the land.
Religious Sites
Caesar and Tacitus claimed that the ancient Germanic people did not have temples and only worshiped in sacred forests, lakes, marshes, and bogs. Archaeological evidence has shown that alongside sacred natural sites, the Germanic people also worshiped their gods in temples and used votive pillars. They also repurposed ancient Neolithic structures such as tumuli and standing stones as places of worship for the gods.
Large bonfires and large central buildings in settlements likely had ceremonial religious functions as well. Later Christian sources refer to temples used by various Germanic tribes, and Roman-style temples dedicated to the matronae have also been found. Even in the Frisian law, the Lex Frisionum, which dates after the conversion to Christianity, penalties are mentioned for those who break into consecrated temples or desecrate temples. A temple dedicated to Hercules in the territory of the Batavi at Empel in the Netherlands shows a typical Roman-Celtic architectural style.
An early Scandinavian temple has been found in Uppåkra, modern Sweden. The building, a very large hall with two entrances, was rebuilt in the exact same location seven times between 200 and 950 AD. Architecturally, the temple resembles later Scandinavian stave churches. A similar structure has been found at Møllebækvej in Zeeland, dating back to the 3rd century AD.
Priests, Shamans & Druids
Tacitus describes various religious functionaries in Germanic society, including priestesses called "Almae," who served as oracles and played an important role in religious rituals. However, there is divided opinion among scholars about the nature and function of Germanic priests or shamans. Some scholars in the field of religious studies believe that there was originally no separate class of priests and that kings and chieftains often fulfilled the ritual functions. On the other hand, linguists argue based on reconstructed words for "priest" that there was indeed a specialized class of priests.
Caesar claimed that the Germanic people did not have druids, while Tacitus mentions various types of priests. However, Roman sources do not mention Germanic religious functionaries. Later descriptions of similar rituals, such as those mentioned by Tacitus, do not mention ritual specialists, but it is reasonable to assume that they were present. In the Viking Age, ritual specialists in Scandinavia may have had symbolic insignia such as staffs and oath rings, but it is unclear whether they formed a hierarchy. They also seem to have fulfilled other non-religious roles in society.
Old Norse sagas often mention female ritual specialists among the North Germanic peoples, both as priestesses and seers. Both Tacitus and the Saga of Erik the Red mention a seeress who prophesies from an elevated platform, and the Saga of Erik the Red also mentions the use of a magic wand or staff.
Roman Gods?
Stone altars of the matronae and Nehalennia depict women in Germanic clothing but otherwise follow Roman models. Other depictions of Mercury, Hercules, or Mars show no difference from Roman models. Many bronze and silver images of Roman gods have been found throughout Germania, some made by the Germanic people themselves, suggesting that the Germanic people adopted these figures. Heiko Steuer suggests that these images were likely reinterpreted as local Germanic gods and used on household altars: a find from Odense dating from around 100-300 CE contains images of Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Apollo.
Funeral Rituals
The Germanic peoples originally had the custom of cremation, where the deceased were burned. This was the most common practice until the first century BC. However, after that period, inhumation burials also began to appear, where bodies were buried. In cremation, the ashes were usually collected in urns, but there are also cases where the ashes were left in pits, mounds, or coffins. During the Viking Age in Scandinavia, about half of the population did not receive a grave. Their ashes were scattered, or their bodies were left unburied.
Grave goods played an important role in Germanic funeral culture. These goods could be broken and placed in the grave with the deceased or burned along with the body on the funeral pyre. They included clothing, jewelry, food, drinkware, plates, and utensils. From the first century AD, weapons were also found in a minority of graves. On the continent, inhumation became the most common form of burial among the South Germanic peoples towards the end of the migration period, while cremation was more common in Scandinavia. During the migration and Merovingian periods, graves were often reopened, and grave goods were removed, both by grave robbers and as part of authorized relocations. In the Merovingian period, weapons were found in most male graves.
Urns graves were often covered with stones and surrounded by stone circles. The urns were often placed in a mortuary that may have served as a cult structure. Cemeteries were sometimes established around ancient Bronze Age burial mounds or reused these mounds. Later, cemeteries were placed near Roman ruins and roads, possibly to facilitate the transition of the dead to the afterlife. Some graves also included burials of horses and dogs, with horses possibly seen as means of transport to the afterlife. During the migration period, burials with dogs were found in a large area. It is possible that the dogs were intended to protect the deceased in the afterlife or prevent revenge from the dead.
From the year 1 AD, inhumation burials in large burial mounds with wooden or stone grave chambers began to appear throughout the Germanic area. These graves contained valuable grave gifts and were separate from the regular cemeteries. In the 3rd century, elite burials were found from Norway to Slovakia, many of which were in Jutland. These graves usually contained plates and tableware, possibly intended for use by the deceased in the afterlife or during a funeral meal. In the 4th century, the practice of constructing elite Reihengräber (row graves) emerged among the Continental Germanic peoples. These graves were arranged in rows and contained large amounts of gold, jewelry, ornaments, and other luxury items. Unlike cremation cemeteries, only a few hundred individuals were buried in Reihengräber cemeteries. In Scandinavia, elite chamber graves became common in the 9th and 10th centuries. In these graves, the body of the deceased was sometimes buried sitting, with objects in their hands or on their lap.
Row Graves
Reihengräber, also known as row graves, were a specific type of burial site that existed among the Germanic peoples during the migration period and the Merovingian period. These graves were notable for their arrangement in rows, with multiple graves placed side by side.
Reihengräber were mainly found on the European mainland, particularly in areas inhabited by Germanic tribes. They were found in countries such as Germany, Denmark, Norway, Slovakia, and other surrounding regions.
These graves were usually reserved for the elite or important individuals within Germanic society. They were characterized by their large size and were often adorned with burial mounds, stone structures, and grave chambers made of wood or stone.
What set Reihengräber apart from other burial sites were the abundant grave goods and luxury items buried alongside the deceased. These grave goods often included gold jewelry, jewels, weapons, plates, tableware, and other valuable objects. It was believed that these items would be useful to the deceased in the afterlife or possibly used during funeral feasts.
Unlike cremation cemeteries where the deceased were cremated, the bodies were buried in Reihengräber. However, the number of individuals buried in these cemeteries was limited, often only a few hundred individuals.
Reihengräber provide important insights into the social hierarchy, funeral practices, and cultural values of the Germanic peoples during that period. The wealth and extravagance of the grave goods suggest a strong emphasis on prestige and status, as well as a belief in an afterlife. These graves are valuable archaeological finds that help us better understand the history and traditions of Germanic society.
The earliest known ship burial was found in Jutland, dating from the late Roman Imperial period. Earlier burials outside Scandinavia have also been found, such as in Wremen on the Weser River in northern Germany, from the 4th or 5th century AD. From around 600 AD, ship burials occurred in England and spread throughout Scandinavia and the areas where Scandinavians traveled. In some cases, the deceased were first cremated within the ship before a mound was constructed over it, as described by Ahmad ibn Fadlan for the Rus'. Scholars debate the significance of these burials, with the ship possibly serving as a means of transportation to the afterlife or symbolizing a feasting hall. Parts of the ships were often left uncovered for an extended period of time.
Predicting the Future
The casting and drawing of lots to predict the future was a widespread practice among the Germanic peoples, as evidenced by medieval and ancient texts. Linguistic analysis confirms that this practice had existed for a long time. Since 2002, approximately 160 lots made of various materials have been discovered at different archaeological sites from the Roman period and the migration period.
One of the most detailed descriptions of Germanic lot-casting can be found in Tacitus' work "Germania," Chapter 10. According to Tacitus, the Germanic people used wooden lots made from fruit-bearing trees, which were marked with symbols. These lots were thrown onto a white cloth, and then the head of the family or a priest would draw three lots. Although the symbols mentioned by Tacitus are often interpreted as runes, most scholars agree that they were simple symbols without the complexity of runes.
Additionally, there are Icelandic sources from the 13th century that testify to the use of carved symbols in lot-casting. However, there is debate among scholars as to whether these later sources represent a form of influence introduced with Christianity or if they were a continuation of the Germanic practice.
The casting and drawing of lots likely served various purposes for the Germanic peoples. It was used to make decisions, predict the future, and possibly as a way to connect with the supernatural. Its significance is evident from the frequency with which lot-casting is mentioned in ancient texts and its occurrence in different Germanic cultures. Although the specific practices and interpretations of lot-casting may vary among different Germanic tribes and eras, it is clear that lot-casting was an important element in the religious and social practices of the Germanic peoples.
Magic
The concept of magic within Germanic society was deeply intertwined with their spiritual and mythological beliefs. Although there was no specific word that could be translated as "magic" in the Germanic languages, magic was practiced and recognized in various forms.
Magic was associated with certain figures within Germanic mythology, such as Odin. Odin was known as a god closely connected to magic and wisdom. He was considered the master of magical arts and was often depicted as someone who acquired knowledge through magical practices.
Magic was also associated with the use of runes, an ancient writing system that was not only used for communication but also considered a source of magical power. While the precise meaning and practice of runic magic are still debated among scholars, it is generally believed that runes were used as symbols to exert influence over the natural and supernatural world.
Magic within Germanic society encompassed various aspects, including blessings, protection, healing, and divination. Charms and incantations were employed as means to obtain blessings, seek protection against magic or illness, and promote healing. These incantations were often recited using specific rituals and meter to enhance their effectiveness.
Several sources refer to pre-Christian magic among the Germanic peoples, including textual descriptions and archaeological findings of objects. Interestingly, the Germanic languages do not have a common word that can be directly translated as "magic," and there is no evidence that the Germanic peoples made a distinction between "white" and "black" magic.
In Norse texts, the god Odin is particularly associated with magic, and this connection is also found in the Old High German Second Merseburg Incantation. While runes are often associated with magic, most scholars no longer believe that runes themselves were considered inherently magical.
Inscriptions on objects from the migration period, such as runestones, do contain some early magical words and formulas. One of the most well-known is the word "alu," found on multiple objects and dating from the period between 200 and 700 AD.
After the conversion to Christianity in continental Europe, Christian sources mention various forms of magic among the Germanic peoples, including amulets, spells, "witchcraft," divination, and particularly defensive magic. Ancient Norse mythology and literature after the conversion also testify to various forms of magic, including divination, magic that influences nature (such as weather), spells to make warriors invulnerable to weapons, spells to strengthen weapons, and spells to harm or disturb others.
Thus, magic played a significant role in Germanic societies, both before and after Christianization. It was a way for people to exert influence over their surroundings and connect with the supernatural. Although the specific practices and beliefs regarding magic may vary among different Germanic tribes and eras, it is evident that magic was a deeply rooted and significant aspect of Germanic religion and worldview.
The term "incantation" is used to refer to magical poetry that can contain blessings or curses. Among the Germanic peoples, the most well-known incantations are blessings sought by individuals for protection, defense against magic or illness, and healing. There is little evidence of curses outside of literary sources, and these curses often call for death.
In Old Norse, a specific meter of alliterative verses called "galdralag" was used for incantations. Some pre-Christian incantations have been preserved on metal or bone material, where they were engraved. However, outside of literature, there is limited knowledge of known Old Norse incantations. Later Icelandic incantations after Christianization sometimes mention Odin or Thor but may reflect Christian influences on magic.
In Old High German, numerous testimonies of incantations exist, but only the Merseburg Incantations have been preserved in a non-Christianized form. A similar situation occurs in Old English, where more than 100 incantations are recorded, including the "Nine Herbs Charm" that mentions Wodan (Odin). These incantations attest to the practice of magic and the role of gods like Odin in Germanic magical traditions. They were discovered in a manuscript from the 9th/10th century. These incantations are unique as they are among the few surviving examples of Germanic magical poetry in a non-Christian form.
The Merseburg Incantations
The Merseburg Incantations consist of two separate poems collectively known as the "Merseburger Zaubersprüche" or "Merseburg Spells." They are attributed to the so-called Merseburg sisters, presumably priestesses or witches who recorded their knowledge of magic and healing practices in these poems.
The incantations describe magical actions and spells aimed at healing wounds, protecting warriors in battle, and restoring lost horses. What makes these charms unique is that they employ rhythmic sounds and alliteration, suggesting that they were recited or sung as part of a magical ritual.
The Merseburg Incantations offer a rare glimpse into the magical practices and beliefs of early Germanic society. They demonstrate a belief in the power of words and sounds to influence the natural world and invoke supernatural aid. These incantations are a valuable cultural heritage and a fascinating example of the magical traditions of the Germanic peoples.
The Nine Herbs Charm
In Old English, several charms are known, including a notable incantation called the "Nine Herbs Charm." This incantation is recorded in a manuscript called "Bald's Leechbook" dating back to the 9th century. It is one of the oldest and most extensive charms preserved in Old English.
The Nine Herbs Charm is a healing spell that harnesses the power of nine different herbs to treat diseases and injuries. The text provides detailed instructions on how to gather, prepare, and use the herbs to promote healing. It emphasizes the importance of the proper ritual and the correct pronunciation of the words to be effective.
The charm employs poetic and rhythmic language, utilizing repetitions and alliterations to enhance the magical power of the words. It also mentions Wodan (Odin), a significant deity in Germanic mythology, as a source of healing and protection.
Like the Merseburg Incantations, the Nine Herbs Charm provides insight into the magical and healing practices of early Germanic society, as this text likely draws from older Germanic and indigenous European healing practices. It attests to the belief in the healing properties of herbs and the importance of rituals and words in promoting healing.
The Nine Herbs Charm is a valuable cultural heritage that connects us to the ancient Germanic traditions and their understanding of medicine and magic. It demonstrates the deep-rooted connection of the Germanic peoples with the natural world and their quest for healing and protection.
Processions
Ritual processions, in which the idol of a deity is carried, often on a cart, take place in various religions in Europe and Asia. This phenomenon is also present in Germanic religion, supported by archaeological findings and ancient sources. There is evidence that such processions took place in Scandinavia as early as the Bronze Age. Sometimes, even ships were used for these processions, such as the Migration Period ship discovered in the Oberdorla bog in Thuringia.
These processions are often interpreted as fertility rituals. A depiction of such a procession from the Viking Age is provided by the remnants of the Oseberg tapestry, which show men, women, and carts.
The oldest written source referring to a ritual procession in Germanic religion can be found in Tacitus' "Germania," Chapter 40, where he describes the worship of Nerthus. According to Tacitus, the image of Nerthus was pulled through the land on a cart by cows for several days before being taken to a lake and cleansed by slaves, who were then drowned in the lake. This description is reminiscent of highly decorated wagons found in water and graves in South Scandinavia, dating roughly to Tacitus' time.
A similar ritual is mentioned for the Goths, who forced Christians to participate during the Gothic persecution of Christians (369-372 AD), as well as among the Franks according to Gregory of Tours. However, Gregory places his ritual in pre-Germanic Gaul and attributes it to an eastern goddess. It is also claimed that the Frankish Merovingian kings were carried in an ox cart to gatherings, reminiscent of Tacitus' description.
A detailed description of a ritual procession for the god Freyr can be found in the Flateyjarbók (1394). It describes how Freyr rides in a cart to ensure a good harvest. This description and several other Scandinavian sources from after the conversion may stem from the oral tradition of the worship of Freyr.
Offerings
Archaeological findings have been made at various sacred sites associated with the Przeworsk culture and in Denmark, indicating the existence of animal sacrifices. Cattle, horses, pigs, and sheep or goats were offered, and there is even evidence of human sacrifices. Particularly in Scandinavia, animal bones are frequently found in marshes and lakes. These locations yield more horse bones and bones of young animals than settlements do. A detailed description of Norwegian animal sacrifices in Lade is provided by Snorri Sturluson in Hákonar saga góða, although its accuracy is questioned.
There is also evidence of the offering of objects, humans, and animals found in settlements throughout Germania. These offerings may have served as ritual acts to mark the beginning of building construction. Dogs buried beneath the thresholds of houses likely served as protectors.
Roman authors periodically refer to human sacrifices, usually to emphasize elements they found shocking or abnormal. Human bodies have been discovered in various locations, representing all ages and both genders. These bodies show signs of violent death and may have been victims of human sacrifice or the death penalty. In Denmark alone, over 100 bog bodies have been found, dating from 800 BC to 200 AD. During the same period and even up to 1100 AD, human body parts such as skulls were deposited.
Human sacrifices were also common among the Norse, as mentioned by authors such as Thietmar of Merseburg, Adam of Bremen, and the Gutasaga. An image on the Stora Hammars I picture stone is often interpreted as depicting a human sacrifice.
Additionally, in marshes in Jutland and rivers throughout Germania, offerings of weapons from defeated enemies have been found. This type of offering likely also occurred on land in other parts of Germania. Tacitus describes a similar ritual of sacrificing and destroying weapons in the forest after Arminius' victory over the Romans in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Large deposits of weapons have been found, dating from 350 BC to 400 AD, with smaller deposits extending to 600 AD. These deposits not only contain weapons but often other objects as well, including burned and destroyed warships. They appear to have emerged from a ritual where the weapons were given to the gods as a sign of victory over the enemy. There is no archaeological evidence regarding what happened to the warriors who wielded these weapons, but Roman sources describe them being sacrificed as well. One possible exception is the site of the Alken Enge bog in Jutland, where the crushed and dismembered bodies of approximately 200 men aged 13 to 45 were found, indicating they perished on the battlefield. There are no reports in later Scandinavian sources regarding rituals associated with the destruction of weapons, suggesting that these rituals quickly disappeared and fell into oblivion.
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