We all know that modern Halloween has come over from America and that this celebration has its origins in the Irish Samhain. But what does this mean in a broader Indo-European context? What do these festivals tell us about our form of ancestor worship? In this blog, we aim to place Samhain, the precursor to Halloween, in a broader context in an accessible way.
Indo-European Ancestor Worship
Indo-European paganism is a Dharmic nature religion; we call it Dharmic because there were prescriptions and rules that maintained and supported the cosmic order. In this, ancestors play an important role. For thousands of years, the Proto-Indo-European peoples buried high-ranking deceased individuals in burial mounds. On the steppes, these mounds were visible from afar, serving as sacred places that emphasized the ancestor’s status. Nomadic tribes would regularly return to these places to offer sacrifices in honor of their ancestors. The people buried in these mounds were also personifications of the semi-mythological ancestors of the tribe. Their heroic deeds and achievements were passed down through generations and revered, immortalized in the bardic oral traditions of the people. Indo-European peoples, such as the Greeks, Romans, Germanic tribes, Celts, Balto-Slavs, Indo-Iranians, and Indo-Aryans, upheld this tradition.
In this context, we must view the Celtic Samhain, the Slavic Dziady, and the Germanic Álfablót.
All of these festivals share one common theme: the remembrance of deceased ancestors. This includes both one’s own ancestors and the mythological ancestors of the tribe or clan. Ancestor worship is a very important practice in Indo-European cultures. It unites the people and creates a bond of honor and pride.
What is Samhain
Samhain is a Celtic festival that begins on the evening of October 31. The Celtic day began at sunset, unlike today, where it starts at sunrise. The festival marked the end of the harvest season and the beginning of winter.
The Gallic Coligny calendar from the 1st century refers to the month samonios, a term which scholars believe is linked to the word Samhain. Some Neolithic passage tombs in Britain and Ireland are aligned with the sunrise during Samhain, indicating a much older origin for this festival.
October 31 falls roughly midway between the autumn equinox and the winter solstice. The light season transitions into the dark season, with winter symbolizing death. After Samhain, the Wild Hunt begins, leading to Yule (midwinter), and then light (life) returns to the earth.
On Samhain, people honored their ancestors and made offerings at their graves. This could be for both one's own ancestors as well as the semi-mythological ancestors of the tribe. The period was considered a time when the veil between the world of the living and the dead (the Otherworld) was thin, allowing the souls of the deceased to come closer.
The night of Samhain was not without danger. Since the world of the dead was close to the world of the living, travel between the two worlds became easier. In Old Irish mythology, it is clear that monsters and evil spirits lived in the underworld, and during this night, they could cross over into the world of the living.
Samhain in Old Irish Mythology
Samhain is frequently mentioned in Irish manuscripts and is connected with important events in Irish mythology. These stories were written down by Christian monks between the 9th and 13th centuries, though they were likely passed down orally for hundreds of years before that. Often, the texts known today are copies of earlier manuscripts.
From this literature, we can infer that feasts and large gatherings took place. Tochmarc Emire (10th century) names Samhain as the first of the four seasonal festivals. According to Echtra Cormaic (12th century), the High King of Ireland (ard rí na hÉrenn) held the Feast of Tara every seventh Samhain, during which new rules, laws, and duties were established. The festival was also a time when people had to offer part of their harvest to their lord, as described in an extreme version in Lebor Gabála Érenn (12th century).
These gatherings, where the heroes of Ireland assembled to feast, drink, and compete, were a popular setting in stories because they easily sparked conflicts or sealed romantic bonds, with all the heroes present in their full glory.
It was a time of peace. In Táin Bó Cúailnge (12th century), the cattle raid on Ulster begins on Samhain, a day when no one expected war.
During Samhain, beings from the Otherworld entered the human world, as recounted in Macgnímartha Finn (12th century) and Acallam na Senórach (early 13th century). Burial mounds were seen as gateways to the Otherworld. In the Dinnshenchas of Móin Gai Glais, Cúldub kills someone on Samhain and is killed in revenge by a man named Gae Glas. In Dunaire Finn, though Samhain is not mentioned explicitly, Cúldub emerges from a burial mound to steal cattle, and the hero Fionn chases him. Fionn throws a spear at Cúldub, who stumbles back into the mound. A woman slams the door to the mound, trapping Fionn’s thumb. He puts his thumb in his mouth to ease the pain, and since his thumb had been in the Otherworld, Fionn gains great wisdom, possibly symbolizing ancestral knowledge.
In Echtra Neraí (10th century) and Togail Bruidne Dá Derga (11th century), it is clear that Samhain was associated with death, not just of individuals but of entire populations. In some versions of the former story, Nera spends a long time in the Otherworld and convinces his rulers of this by bringing back summer flowers as proof.
How Was a Samhain Celebration Held?
How exactly the ancestors celebrated Samhain remains unclear, but by studying Old Irish texts, Indo-European cultural expressions, Old Irish law, and early modern celebrations, we can reconstruct a possible picture.
Unlike the Germanic and Scandinavian Álfablót, which was a more private, household-based celebration, Samhain likely involved the entire community in a large, central gathering. It’s possible that every few years, a larger Samhain festival was held than usual.
Men and women washed themselves and wore their finest clothes to present themselves well. They would gather at a central location where they were received by the king (rí) or the nobility (flaith). Hospitality and generosity were crucial to maintain the king's status. If he did not receive his guests according to their rank, conflict could arise, tarnishing his reputation. The guests were given food, and it is possible that gifts were exchanged, or that this was the time when clients gave offerings to their lord.
Offerings were made to the dead, both to one’s own deceased family members and to the mythological ancestors. The offering was likely carried out by the druid and the king, who also held a spiritual role. This act reinforced and reaffirmed the bond between ancestors, law, beauty, and the tribe (túath).
At nightfall, two large fires were lit. Members of the tribe and cattle (particularly cattle) were possibly led between the fires in a ritual cleansing. In the early modern period, all fires were extinguished before being rekindled from the central bonfire.
Bards would tell stories and sing songs about the heroic deeds of the ancestors. This was considered the greatest gift one could give to the dead: eternal fame through the telling of their stories. There were also competitions, such as spear throwing and horse riding.
Festivals like Samhain were also opportunities to conduct business, such as dividing grazing land for the following year. The king, whether the rí túaithe (king of the tribe) or the high king (ard rí), may have announced new laws to the gathered attendees. He was likely supported by his judges (brithemna), as even the king was not above the law.
Such gatherings of the tribe were also occasions where young people could meet, and connections were made that often led to marriages. In this way, the festival of the dead also influenced new life. The ritual offerings would have made a strong impression on the children of the clan.
On Samhain night, they were likely entertained with stories about terrifying monsters crossing over from the Otherworld into the land of the living, and about the magic present in the burial mounds. Soon, sometime between Samhain and Yule, they would have to embark on their own adventures, visiting the burial mounds of the dead and returning with offerings as proof.
Reconstruction
We have put together the outfits of an early 5th-century AD Old Irish man and woman. The characters in this blog, whom we’ve named Conchobar and Gráinne, hold the status of bóaire, or free farmer. Conchobar owns a piece of land and, together with his neighbor, shares a pair of oxen with which they plow their land. Additionally, Conchobar owns livestock, including six cows, fifteen sheep, and a beehive.
They lived just before the introduction of Christianity. While there are no written sources from this period, much can be reconstructed based on later texts. The couple is preparing to participate in the Samhain ritual, which is held communally within the túath (clan/tribe) and led by the rí túaithe (king of the túath).
Like other clan members, they have eagerly awaited this festival for the entire month. They have gathered their offerings, such as part of the grain harvest, honey from their beehives, butter, or a portion of pork. Higher-ranking members of the community would offer more extensive sacrifices, possibly a whole (white) bull, horse, or mead.
For the composition of Gráinne (woman), click here.
Tunic (Léine)
In the 5th century, Old Irish men likely wore a long tunic called a léine. These garments, unlike later models, had no baggy sleeves and were simple in design. An example of a fairly simple léine is Conchobar’s, a style commonly worn by the general population. The luxury and refinement of a léine were directly linked to the wearer’s social status: the more luxurious the fabric and finishing, the wealthier the person wearing it. The Old Irish word "léine" still survives in modern Gaelic, where the word for T-shirt is T-léine.
For Conchobar, his léine would have been made of undyed wool or linen, practical and suitable for a free farmer of his status, but without the elaborate embroidery or rich fabrics seen among higher social classes.
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Kaftan (Ionar)
Over the léine, Old Irish men wore the ionar, an outer garment similar to the kaftan worn by Germanic and Viking men during the same period. The ionar served both a practical function, providing extra warmth, and, like the léine, it acted as a status symbol. The wealth of the wearer was often reflected in the materials and embellishments of the ionar.
For wealthier individuals, the ionar might be made of finer fabrics such as dyed wool or trimmed with decorative embroidery, whereas simpler versions like Conchobar’s would be made from more basic materials. During warmer months, such as summer, the léine could be worn without the ionar for comfort.
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Mantle (Brat)
The most important garment in Old Irish Gaelic culture was the brat, a large mantle worn over the léine and ionar. This spacious mantle was versatile and practical, large enough to serve as a blanket for those sleeping outdoors. The brat could be worn in different ways, depending on the situation and the needs of the wearer.
When Conchobar worked in the fields, he would tuck his brat into his belt, allowing him to easily remove the mantle from around his neck and wear it around his waist in warm weather. This ease of use made the brat a multifunctional garment. From this practice, the later Scottish belted plaid evolved, which eventually became the precursor to the famous Scottish kilt. This shows how the clothing of Old Irish culture laid the foundation for later Celtic attire in Scotland.
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Trousers, Leg Wraps, Footwear
In 5th-century Ireland, trousers were likely not commonly worn. The Gaelic population of Ireland, and later Scotland, preferred wearing long tunics, like the léine, instead of trousers or shoes. This choice can partly be attributed to the marshy conditions of the landscape, rich in peat soil, making the fields often wet and muddy. Avoiding trousers, leg wraps, or shoes made it easier to dry the legs quickly, a practical adaptation to the local environment. This practice persisted into the 17th century.
However, in the 9th-century Book of Kells, a warrior is depicted wearing trousers. These trousers bear a strong resemblance to the style found in Thorsberg, Germany, suggesting that there was some cultural exchange and influence even in clothing styles across different regions. For this reconstruction, we’ve given Conchobar trousers, leg wraps, and footwear, which gives his character a more versatile appearance and aligns with the iconography of the time.
This combination adds an extra layer of authenticity and reflects how even Gaelic culture could adapt and evolve through external influences.
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Comb
In Old Irish society, as with other Indo-European peoples, it was likely customary to wash oneself before participating in a sacred ritual and to wear one's finest clothing. The gods governed the cosmos, which symbolized structure and beauty.
Combs were a vital part of grooming, and personal cleanliness was important in maintaining both physical appearance and spiritual readiness for rituals. Using a small, carved comb made from bone or wood, individuals would groom their hair to reflect the order and beauty that were key values in both the physical world and the divine. This act of grooming before rituals underscored respect for the gods and the order they represented.
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Torque, Oath Ring
The torque has Proto-Indo-European origins and served as an important symbol across various societies. Torques, along with oath rings and upper arm bracelets, represented the making of oaths and the forging of commitments. This symbolism is especially significant because Proto-Indo-European society had a strongly oath-bound structure, where loyalty and fidelity were crucial.
Wearing a torque signified not only wealth and status but also one's loyalty to a clan or leader. Similarly, oath rings were used during ceremonies, where individuals would swear oaths of loyalty or service, often in the presence of gods or leaders. These items of adornment held deep spiritual and social meaning, embodying the wearer’s obligations and connections to both the divine and their community.
Celtic warriors are often depicted wearing torques, which emphasized their status and loyalty. Archaeological discoveries have revealed luxurious gold torques, but the essence of the torque remains the same, regardless of whether it is made of wood, steel, or precious metals. This highlights the widespread use of torques across different cultures. The Celts, Vikings, Romans, and Indo-Iranians all wore torques, underscoring their shared cultural and moral values. These pieces of jewelry were not merely ornamental; they were imbued with meaning, connected to identity, status, and social obligations. It’s possible that modern wedding rings have evolved from this tradition.
Conchobar, as a bóaire (free farmer), automatically belongs to the Old Irish warrior class. His torque symbolizes his loyalty to the túath (tribe), representing not only his social standing but also his commitment to the bonds of loyalty and protection within his community. The torque is a physical manifestation of these deep-rooted values, carrying the weight of tradition and responsibility.
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Belt
In this ensemble, we have given Conchobar a 6th-century Germanic belt. Such belts were commonly worn throughout the Germanic world and were not only functional but also aesthetically pleasing. Moreover, they could be traded as export goods, highlighting their value and popularity across different cultures.
In the absence of a replica of a 5th-century Old Irish belt, we used this belt as a practical substitute. While it does not perfectly match the clothing style of Conchobar’s time, it reflects the regional influences and trade relationships that existed between the Germanic and Irish peoples. This underscores the fluidity of clothing and fashion in Old Irish society and its connections to broader Indo-European traditions. The inclusion of such a belt suggests how cultural exchanges shaped the practical and decorative elements of everyday attire during that period.
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Germanic Sax
We have given Conchobar an early sax, representing his role within the warrior class of the túath. It is possible that Conchobar acquired this sax through trade, highlighting the connections and cultural exchanges between the Germanic and Irish peoples. This choice of a Germanic sax in Conchobar's portrayal is an artistic interpretation that not only emphasizes his warrior status but also reflects the dynamic trade relations that existed during this period.
These combined elements paint a richer picture of the social and military structures in Old Irish culture. The inclusion of the sax suggests how trade and cultural influence shaped the tools and weapons of the time, blending practicality with cultural significance in the life of a warrior-farmer like Conchobar.
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Spear
Conchobar’s most important weapon was undoubtedly the spear. Spears held a central role in Old Irish society and were not just military weapons but also symbols of status and martial skill. The Old Irish language has over thirty different words for spear, underscoring the versatility and significance of this weapon in both culture and warfare of the time.
For a warrior like Conchobar, the spear would have been a primary tool in battle, representing his readiness to defend his túath and his status within the warrior class. Its importance in daily life and conflict reflects the spear’s deep-rooted connection to identity, honor, and survival in the Old Irish world.
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