The Roman army was known for its unparalleled military might and strategic prowess. With a well-organized structure and a wide range of soldiers, divided into Legionary and auxiliae, the Romans conquered large parts of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.
Legionary
The Legionary formed the backbone of the Roman army. They were heavily armed and highly trained in Roman war tactics. A typical legion consisted of about 5,000 to 6,000 Legionary and was led by a legatus, a general. Legionary were citizens of Rome and usually served for a term of 20 years. Almost all of them were recruited from the plebeian and proletarian classes (provided they were free citizens). In addition, it also happened that Legionary were recruited from newly conquered peoples. Most of the Legionary were 17 years old when they enlisted.
Legion composition
A typical Roman legion consisted of about 5,000 to 6,000 soldiers, although this number could vary throughout history. Each legion was divided into smaller units, including cohorts, maniples, and centuriae.
Cohorts
The legion was divided into 10 cohorts. Each cohort consisted of about 480 to 800 soldiers, led by a tribune. The first cohort was the elite unit and consisted of about 800 soldiers. Each cohort was further subdivided into maniples.
Maniples
A cohort was made up of 6 maniples. A manipel was a smaller unit consisting of two centuriae, led by a centurion. The maniples formed the basis of the tactical formations and could be used flexibly on the battlefield.
Centuries
The centuriae were the smallest units within the legion and consisted of about 80 to 100 soldiers. Each centuria was led by a centurion, an experienced and respected officer. The centurion was responsible for the training, discipline and leading of his centuria in combat situations.
Specializations
Within a legion there were also soldiers with special skills and functions. For example, there were the equites, the cavalry units that served as reconnaissance units and fast attackers. In addition, there were also soldiers with technical skills, such as engineers for building siege engines and bridges.
Ranks
Within each legion there were different military ranks, ranging from the most senior officers to the common soldiers. The most senior officers were the legatus, the legion commander, and the tribuni, the officers who each led a cohort. Among them were the centurions, the centurions, who were responsible for the maniples and centuriae. The common soldiers, known as Legionary, made up the majority of the legion.
Logistics
Behind the success of the Roman armies was a well-organized logistics system that enabled the troops to operate efficiently wherever they were.
One of the most important aspects of Roman logistics was ensuring adequate supplies of food, water, weapons, ammunition and other supplies for the troops. This was accomplished through the establishment of supply lines, where supplies were collected from the provinces and brought to the legions. The Romans used a network of roads and bridges to efficiently transport goods.
To coordinate supplies, there were special units, such as the legionary baggage train (impedimenta) and the military transport service (cursus publicus). These units were responsible for organizing the logistics and ensuring that the troops were supplied with what they needed, even during campaigns and long marches.
Communication was also an essential part of Roman logistics. The empire used an extensive network of roads and post stations (mutatio) to quickly send messages and orders. Horseback couriers (cursus publicus) were used to convey important messages, often in coded language to ensure security.
The Romans were also adept at building military camps (castra) during campaigns. These camps were strategically placed and served as temporary bases for the legions. They were carefully designed with defenses, roads, water sources and other facilities to house and secure the troops.
Field signs & communication
The field standard, also known as the signum or vexillum, was an important symbol used to identify and direct troops during military operations. Each legion had its own field standard (Aquila), usually made of wood or metal and decorated with emblems and symbols representing the legion unit. The field standard acted as a focal point for the soldiers, reinforcing their sense of unity and loyalty.
Commanding on the battlefield was a coordinated and accurate job. The Roman armies were divided into different units such as legions, cohorts and maniples. Each of these units had its own commanders who were responsible for giving orders and coordinating the actions of the soldiers.
The highest military commander was the general or general, who was generally of nobility and political power. The general commanded the army and issued general strategic orders. Below the general were the centurions, veteran officers responsible for commanding their cohorts and maintaining discipline.
To effectively convey commands on the battlefield, the Romans used a system of signals and commands. Trumpets, horns and drums were used to give signals such as starting or stopping an attack, changing formations or gathering troops. In addition, there were commands such as "ad signa!" (by standards!) or "ad arma!" (to the arms!) that were used to mobilize soldiers and bring them into action.
Medical care
Medical care for the soldiers was a priority for the Romans. They had well-trained doctors, known as medics, who were employed to treat wounded soldiers and address medical issues. These doctors were often experienced and knowledgeable about various medical techniques and treatments.
In the Roman army, there were special medical units known as valetudinaria that acted as field hospitals. These units were equipped with medical equipment and supplies to care for wounded soldiers. They were staffed by doctors, nurses and other medical personnel, who ensured that the soldiers received proper care.
Veterinary services in the Roman army were also well developed. The military relied on animals, particularly horses and mules, for transportation, logistics, and combat purposes. Veterinary doctors, known as veterinarius, were responsible for the health and well-being of these animals. They took care of the horses' medical needs, including the treatment of injuries and illnesses.
The Roman Veterinarius had knowledge of animal anatomy and physiology, as well as treatment techniques and medicines specifically tailored to animals. They played a vital role in maintaining the health of the animals, keeping them in optimal condition for military operations.
Soldy
The Roman Legionary was poorly paid! Although the Roman army provided all the necessary equipment, the Legionary himself had to pay. This left only a small part of his salary for himself. What the Legionary did earn a lot of money with were bonuses. Rome had many emperors and sometimes emperors could only rule for months. Each emperor wanted to assure himself of the loyalty of the legions and therefore paid a bonus when he took office. Outside of that, many Legionary will have made extra income in the area where they were stationed. Because the Roman Empire had legionaries build camps, fortifications, bridges and roads, they were great strong workmen. An excavation in Corbridge, England, near Hadrian's Wall, tells us more about this. In addition to a lorica segmentata, the excavation also found many different tools. It tells us the harsh story of a Roman Legionary who was stationed there. He had an extra lorica segmentata (always handy) and specialist tools (possible for odd jobs). One day he had to go on a long patrol in the area. To prevent theft, he put his things in a chest that he buried. He then went on a patrol that he could not recount. The coffin was later found by archaeologists.
Training
Newly recruited soldiers underwent intensive basic training called "probatio". During this period, their physical fitness was tested and they were subjected to strict discipline. They were taught basic skills such as handling weapons, forming formations and learning to obey orders. A crucial part of the Legionary' training was the marching skill. They had to learn to march long distances with their equipment and were trained to develop their stamina and strength. This was essential, as the Roman legions were known for their rapid marches during campaigns. The Legionary were extensively trained in the use of various weapons. They learned to use the signature gladius (short sword) for close combat and to throw the pilum (throwing javelin) for ranged attacks. They were also trained to use shields, such as the scutum, to protect themselves from enemy attacks.
The Legionary were well trained in forming a solid frontline and performing complex maneuvers on the battlefield. They learned different formations, such as the "testudo" (turtle formation) and the "quincunx" (oblique formation), which were used for defensive purposes. They were also trained in coordinated attacks and maneuvers. Legionary were trained for up to 8 hours a day. The construction of fortified encampments was also extensively trained so that everyone knew exactly what their function was. Discipline was an essential part of the Legionary' training. They were subject to strict rules and harsh punishments for misconduct. Obedience to the orders of their superiors and loyalty to the Roman Empire were core values instilled in the training.
Weapons
Legionary were equipped with an array of weapons, including the distinctive pilum (throwing javelin) and the gladius (short sword). The gladius was originally copied from Iberian shortswords. Many Roman Legionary also carried a short-tipped dagger, the pugio, although this was more of a personal choice than standard equipment. Legionary also wore a scutum (shield) and a lorica segmentata (torso protection). All Legionary also wore helmets, which, like all other armor, were made in different fabricae and reused. Within a cohort, therefore, there was no uniformity in terms of armor. You got what was available at the time. In the republican period, Roman helmets such as the montefortino and the coolus were mainly made of a bronze-brass combination. Later, after the Gallic wars and the army reforms of Augustus, more and more galea helmets were made, these were made of steel. After the Dacian wars in the 1st century AD, these helmets were reinforced on the outside with steel and brass strips. Originally these were intended to strengthen the helmet bowl against the large scythes with which the Dacians fought. Before the development of the lorica segmentata, they carried the lorica hamata. Especially the tactics with which Legionary protected each other with the scutum created a strong line of defense. From behind, the Legionary stabbed his gladius, preferably towards the opponent's neck and face.
Legionary as pack mule
Especially long marches must have been very hard. Legionary sometimes had to walk 30 km daily with heavy packs on their shoulders. Roman Legionary wore a cingulum that made an extra loud noise when marching. This was even more intimidating for enemies. In addition to the usual armor, the Legionary also carried a carrying stick with a goatskin bag (pera), a drinking bottle (Laguncula), tools such as the dolabra, cooking utensils such as the patera, and encampment items. For every eight Legionary, usually one pack mule was taken along to carry extra encampment parts, etc.
In addition, the Legionary wore the tunica, possibly a bracae (trousers) for cold areas, a cloak (sagum) and possibly an extra pair of sandals (galigae).
In addition, they often carried personal items such as a knife, a whistle and perhaps some personal belongings.
Auxiliae
Besides the Legionary, the auxiliae were an integral part of the Roman army. The auxiliae were non-Roman troops recruited from Rome's provinces and allies. They served as indispensable supplements to the Legionary and played a vital role in the expansion and maintenance of the Roman Empire.
There were several types of auxiliae, each with their own specializations:
Auxiliaries (Socii)
These early auxiliaries were soldiers from Rome's allies and were mainly hired in the early Republican and King times. They came from different cultures and ethnicities and brought with them their own skills and tactics.
Cavalry (Equites)
The cavalry units consisted of mounted soldiers who were excellent at reconnaissance, rapid charges and fighting enemy cavalry. They were equipped with swords (spatha), spears and shields.
Archers (Sagittarii)
Archers were highly skilled in the use of the bow and were often deployed as support units on the battlefield. They had a long range and were effective against enemy forces at a distance. Most Sagittarii used recurve bows. Small bows with two throwing arms at either end.
Light Infantry (Leves)
Light infantry units were flexible and fast, and were skilled in guerrilla tactics and reconnaissance. They wore light armor and were armed with javelins and short swords. This also included the slingers. They were often hired from the areas of the Balearic Islands. The bullets were mainly made of lead and could hit as hard as bullets from a pistol.
Artillery (Ballistarii)
The ballistarii were responsible for operating the artillery, such as the ballista and the scorpion. These powerful weapons were used for firing projectiles and were effective against enemy infantry and siege works.
Weapons & equipment
Auxiliae got their weapons and equipment largely from the Roman Empire. These were partly made in Roman fabricae. Often auxiliae received older and sometimes cheaper equipment that had been reused. Until long they wore the lorica hamata. Auxiliae bore the Roman coolus until much longer. Some auxiliae were armed with the spatha, a Germanic type of sword much longer than the Roman gladius. These types of swords were ideal for delivering cuts in addition to stabbing.
The auxiliae received similar military training to the Legionary and worked closely with them on the battlefield and while manning the Limes (frontiers of the Empire). They were often awarded Roman citizenship after 25 years of service.
The Roman army, with its respected Legionary and various auxiliary units, was the world's first professional military force to professionally train and prepare its troops for battle. The Legionary were known for their disciplined formations and heavy armaments, while the auxiliae added a wide range of specialized skills and cultural diversity to the army. Together they formed a well-oiled military machine that enabled the Romans to expand and defend their empire.
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